WebIn 1911, as part of the Progressive reform movement in California, the initiative, referendum, and recall were added to the State Constitution. Moreover, higher education is incredibly expensive, and college debt is staggering. Griswold's history of the Moffat Road, written sixty-eight years after McMechen's 1927 study, draws heavily from his predecessor's work. When they did, it was usually limited to his involvement with the Denver Tramway or prior holdings in the railroad. Encyclopedia of the American Constitution. See Citizens' League Petitions Are Filed with Supervisors, Rocky Mountain News, 13 April 1910; Evans-Speer Gangs Vote Bosses' Will at Primaries, Rocky Mountain News, 22 April 1910; Senator Patterson Asks W. G. Evans for Definite Statement of Moffat Road's Future, Rocky Mountain News, 12 April 1911. See Initiative and Referendum Held Valid, Denver Post, 24 September 1912. Most online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers. The Progressive Era was a period of social and political reform in the United States during the early 1900s that ushered in comprehensive labor laws, Prohibition and womens suffrage. They tried to make big business more responsible through regulations of various kinds. 5. Knights of Columbus, Masons, Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks, and the Loyal Order of Moose), where people were self-sufficient and voluntarily formed institutions to better themselves and their communities, because of the Progressive movement, but today our country is suffering from the unintended consequences of this Progressive Era. 2008. b. increase the influence of business owners on regulatory legislation the process of referring a political question to the electorate for this purpose. In Oregon, for instance, voters approved two initiatives in June 1908, which were placed on the ballot by upstream and downstream fisherman, that effectively eradicated the other's right to fish for salmon on the Columbia River. See the sample ballot published in the Denver Post, 2 November 1914. A great democracy has got to be progressive or it will soon cease to be either great or a democracy. See Senate, Colorado, Senate Journal of the Seventeenth General Assembly of the State of Colorado. c. the Temperance Movement Encyclopedia.com. & I. in the Twentieth Century (Lincoln, 1992), 21Google Scholar. There are several other inaccuracies in works concerning the adoption of public policies in Colorado via the initiative. Senator Thomas Patterson, a civic reformer. In fact, Southern Pacific (now Union Pacific Railroad) was involved in numerous California ballot campaigns, from an unsuccessful 1911 legislative referendum that would have allowed public officials to ride for free on trains, to a successful 1948 statutory initiative that required the public Utilities Commission to specify the number of brakemen on trains. Progressives believed that politicians were often afraid to introduce some types of legislation because it could be unpopular and prevent their reelection. The ballot titles did little to clarify the intent of the two measures. The Progressive Era was the most transformational time in the history of American Politics. But in every state there are thousands of voters who read no newspapers regularly, whose circumstances and associations are such that they have little opportunity to read or hear any informing discussion, and who come to the polls with but the haziest notions as to what the election is all about. Haynes, George, The Education of Voters, Political Science Quarterly 22:3 (1907): 484497, 485CrossRefGoogle Scholar. 22 Feb. 2023 . For example, Link and McCormick write, Two new formal mechanisms of public opinion, the initiative and referendum, permitted voters themselves to propose and enact legislation even against the will of the legislature, and seemingly gave everyone an equal opportunity to change the laws, but in practice they were used most effectively by well-organized interest groups, such as labor unions, prohibitionists, and woman suffragists. Link and McCormick make no mention of how corporate interests also used the mechanisms. This allows people the power to create a law when their legislators are not willing to do so. The indictment of the Guggenheims alongside Rockefeller's C.F. The Oxford Pocket Dictionary of Current English. 29. Therefore, that information is unavailable for most Encyclopedia.com content. Unfortunately, both works have numerous inaccuracies concerning the 1912 election. Not all eyewitness accounts during the Progressive Era, however, were sanguine about the process. Progressive reforms began with the creation of the federal civil service system with the Pendleton Act of 1883. Feature Flags: { What is the reflection of the story of princess urduja? As part of the separation of powers, our Founders wanted Senators beholding to the interests and wishes of the state governments. On the actual 1914 ballot, however, only the proposed sections of the law to be repealed were listed. WebUp to a point, the Progressive era validated the Anti-Federalists fears. Huber, The Progressive Career of Ben B. Lindsey, 33234. The Progressive Era marked the end of the Gilded Ages and a start of a new era. In voicing its opposition, the paper read, This amendment was gotten up by William G. Evans and the corrupt corporations which he represents and controls, and which he destroyed and ruined. So the People May Know, Denver Post, 2 November 1914 (emphasis added). c. muckrakers and women's organizations Racial tensions are increasing, and anti-social behavior is invading our cities and communities. The increased taxing power creates more government spending, which is used by federal politicians to curry favor with voters. WebGreater Durham Chamber of Commerce. Marschall, Melissa J. c. congress called a regulatory agency to audit railroads diss., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1963), 332334Google Scholar. Broder, David, Ballot Initiatives Subvert Election Process, Denver Post, 14 05 2000, K1Google Scholar; idem, Democracy Derailed: Initiative Campaigns and the Power of Money (New York, 2000). (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 2002)Google Scholar; Donovan, Todd and Bowler, Shaun, An Overview of Direct Democracy in the American States, in Bowler, Shaun, Donovan, Todd, and Tolbert, Caroline, eds., Citizens as Legislators (Columbus, Ohio, 1998)Google Scholar; Schmidt, David, Citizen Lawmakers: The Ballot Initiative Revolution (Philadelphia, 1989)Google Scholar; and Magleby, David, Direct Legislation: Voting on Ballot Propositions in the United States (Baltimore, 1984), chap. For especially good accounts of the campaigns to adopt initiative and referendum mechanisms in other states, see Goebel, Thomas, A Case of Democratic Contagion: Direct Democracy in the American West, 18901920, Pacific Historical Review (05 1997): 213230Google Scholar; Piott, Steven, The Origins of the Initiative and Referendum in America, Hayes Historical Journal 11 (Spring 1992): 517Google Scholar; and in the case of California, Allswang, The Initiative and Referendum in California, 818. 52. The Battle Over Ballot Initiatives in America (Lanham, Md., 2001); idem, Special Interests and Direct Democracy: An Historical Glance, in M. Dane Waters, ed., The Battle Over Citizen Lawmaking (Durham, N.C., 2001). Immediately following the 1910 popular vote, opponents challenged the measure in court, arguing that the special session bill had not been submitted properly to the people under Colorado's constitution. Reformers have frequently advocated a national referendum procedure. Published online by Cambridge University Press: WebThe initiative and referendum process enables citizens to bypass their state legislature by placing proposed statutes and, in some states, constitutional amendments on the ballot. California, Oregon, and several other states had parallel partisan experiences during this period. Hofstadter, Richard, The Age of Reform: From Bryan to F.D.R. See Knautz, Harlan, The Colorado Progressive Party of 1912 (M.A. 27. b. Taft took votes away from Wilson On average, 38 percent of those who cast votes for President voted on the twenty initiatives on the ballot; 33 percent voted on the six compulsory referendums; and only 30 percent voted on the six popular referendums. View all Google Scholar citations Schnader, W. A., Proper Safeguards for the Initiative and Referendum, American Political Science Review 10 (1916): 515531, 519CrossRefGoogle Scholar. It usually involves gathering enough signatures and then the initiativegoing on a ballot. 49. Many Progressives believed that state legislatures were part of this problem and that they were essentially "in the pocket" of certain wealthy interests. See Lapp, John, Public Utilities, American Political Science Review 6 (1912): 576578CrossRefGoogle Scholar. d. the government's commitment to regulate big business, the government's commitment to regulate big business, The ability to vote for Senators happened because Wilson and the Progressives were significantly responsible for two, very important amendments to our Constitution in 1912: income tax and the popular-election of our Senators. 18. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the Save PDF action button. b. the government's commitment to limit regulations on big business 13. Several newspapers, along with a coalition of public school teachers, strongly condemned Lindsey's amendment that would have opened public schools to wider popular control. The Progressive Era, which actually extended from the 1890s to For the keen interest of voters regarding prohibition measures in other states during the Progressive Era, see Shippee, Lester, Washington's First Experiment in Direct Citizens might do this if they feel that the official is corrupt. funny thing is I was just looking for this answer. Colorado Bar Association, Analysis of Thirty-Two Measures, 825. c. the federal government could dissolve business monopolies 60. ." -Muller v. Oregon - 1903 law that capped workdays at 10 hours. b. the 16th Amendment was passed WebEXAM 2 NOTES. Despite opposition by the influential Denver Republican newspaper and many public officials from both major parties, voters reelected Governor Shafroth in 1910 with 54 percent of the vote. This came after years of protests and attempts at reform led by the Womens Suffrage Movement (the word suffrage means the right to vote). 46, LAWS 1911, EIGHT HOUR LAW FOR MINERS. In the following sentences, circle each incorrectly used lowercase letter. Lonsdale, The Movement for an Eight-Hour Law in Colorado, 271. Initiatives are citizen made proposals and amendments that can be put on ballots during elections; they are the most frequently used out of the Unfortunately, Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era was just the beginning. -Ida Tarbell It should be noted that the Oregon legislature had passed a law creating a public utilities commission in 1911, but it was challenged (and thereby temporarily suspended) by a popular referendum that was placed on the ballot in 1912. See Colorado Bar Association, Analysis of Thirty-Two Measures, 73, 75, 8384; Vote for Eighteen of the Proposed Measures, Cast Your Vote Against Fourteen of the Bills, Denver Post, 30 October 1912. WebThe Era of Reconstruction, 18651877; Go West Young Man! c. helped expose social injustices and corruptions McCuan, David, California's Political Warriors: Campaign Professionals and the Initiative Process, in Bowler, Shaun, Donovan, Todd, and Tolbert, Caroline, eds., Citizens as Legislators (Columbus, Ohio, 1998), 5556Google Scholar. For an overview, see Bowler, Shaun and Donovan, Todd, Demanding Choices (Ann Arbor, 1998), 720Google Scholar. Although Measure 1, which sought to make Colorado a dry state, lost handily, garnering slightly more than 39 percent of the vote, Coloradoans would narrowly pass a similar prohibition initiative in 1914. The adoption of the two counterpropositions that so patently conflicted with each other indicates that voters may not have understood the substantive implications of the initiative and popular referendum. See Magleby, David, Direct Legislation in the American States, in Butler, David and Ranney, Austin, eds., Referendums around the World (Washington, D.C., 1994), 230231Google Scholar. See Knight, Harold, Working in Colorado: A Brief History of the Colorado Labor Movement (Boulder, 1971), 49Google Scholar. To view our privacy policy please visit: https://www.freedomworks.org/privacy-policy. Initiatives are citizen made proposals and amendments that can be put on ballots during elections; they are the most frequently used out of the 806 Words 4 Pages Decent Essays Read More 56. Routing number of commercial bank of Ethiopia? By providing your information to FreedomWorks, you agree to receive email updates and text messages from FreedomWorks and its partners in freedom. 1866-1945. Political events that led to Oklahoma statehood mirrored the broader goals, concerns, and reforms of the so-called progressive era (19001916). Colorado Senate, Senate Journal, 15258. Immorally and dangerously, government debt is an unpaid tax bill that will presumably be paid by future generations. ." The Denver Post and The Denver Times took no official stance on the merits of direct democracy. 45. The recall enables citizens to collect signatures to force a retention vote of an elected official. In 1908, Dewey wrote, the state has the responsibility for creating institutions under which individuals can effectively realize the potentialities that are theirs." On appeal, however, the Colorado Supreme Court overturned the decision by Riddle and allowed the popular vote on the measure to stand. WebProgressive Era Reforms 2:50 The Progressive Era spanned the late 1800s to the 1920s. 74. Colorado Secretary of State, State of Colorado: Roster of Elected Officers and Tabulated Statement of the Votes Cast for the Several Candidates, 1913Google Scholar. WebEstablished in 1989, Progressive Design Build is a premier design/build remodeling firm in Southwest Florida proudly serving Lee and Collier County residents with the highest In 1902, Shafroth was reelected as a Democrat, but he resigned his seat in 1903 after allegations of fraud were made by his opponent. Durham, NC. Hostname: page-component-7fc98996b9-jxww4 Once the scheme was disclosed publicly, enough legislators refused to endorse it; Speer never won his coveted U.S. Senate seat. 20. Western Federation of Miners, Official Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the Western Federation of Miners of America, August 2, 1910July 29, 1916 (Denver, 1916), 409Google Scholar. WebWhy did Progressive reformers support this amendment? & I was not surprising. Finally, the 19th Amendment,ratified in 1920, officially gave women the right to vote. Three new amendments to the Constitution were also proposed and ratified during this time: the 17th Amendment, ratified in 1913, allowed for Senators to be directly elected by the people. c. 18th Walter Wellman, Walter Wellman's Indictment of Moyer, Haywood and the Western Federation of Miners, unpublished manuscript, Denver Public Library, Western History and Genealogy, 1910, 10. See especially Chavez, Lydia, The Color Bind: California's Battle to End Affirmative Action (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1998)Google Scholar, and Mahtesian, Charles, Grassroots Charade, Governing (11 1998): 3842Google Scholar. 19th Amendment The 18th Amendment of 1919 established the prohibition of alcohol after decades of efforts by the temperance movement to have it banned. How do these issues manifest themselves in conflicts we see going on today? Perspective on Direct Democracy: Who Directs Direct Democracy? Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. Second, there is no provision in the Colorado constitution that refers bills to the people that are left unsigned by the governor. This authority arguably conflicted with Measure 23, which vested custody over all public funds in the state treasurer. ." 33. 8. A monopoly is when one corporation or person controls almost an entire industry, such as steelor oil, so there is no competition. WebThe early 20th century was an era of business expansion and progressive reform in the United States. Although all states did not implement these reforms and they were never adopted at the federal level, they have been used in many states over the years to institute reforms that The Progressive Era was the start of public individuals using referendums to prevent the domination of politics by the majority. For a discussion of the debate over salmon fishing in Oregon, see Bowler and Donovan, Demanding Choices, 11828. 17th While in line with recent studies showing that voter fatigue is more prevalent among legislative referendums than initiatives, the average ballot roll-off on the thirty-two measures in the 1912 election was nevertheless quite striking. Society is a living organism and must obey the laws of life, not of mechanics; it must develop. Outside of California, Matsusaka said, many high-profile referendum campaigns have been launched by progressive groups trying to reverse decisions made by Republican legislatures. The law made the production, sale, and transport of alcohol illegal. ." 14. c. the 17th Amendment was passed If the referendum question gains enough yes votes, then it passes. Zimmerman, Joseph, The Initiative: Citizen Law-Making (Westport, Conn., 1999), 9495Google Scholar. Huber, Francis Anne, The Progressive Career of Ben B. Lindsey, 19001920 (Ph.D. At the time, the adoption by voters of these two competing measures was interpreted alternatively as both an irrational and a rational decision. Referenda may be initiated by the legislature itself or by petition of the people. Although Pearce agreed that many of the signatures were indeed forgeries, he insisted that he was powerless to do anything because the 1910 law gave no remedy for fake signatures on petitions. An examination of the county-level votes on the two measures is perhaps indicative of the confusion many voters had in determining what their vote actually meant. David Trembath writes: The proposition that a senator with no clear agenda is making a valid political gesture by lying in the street in front of a trans childrens float trundling at less than walking pace in a performative sequin-heavy extravaganza using an incoherent rationale that inter alia the extravaganza was initiated years ago by Brown We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. The political and social changes which occurred during this time were a direct response to the corruption and the greed displayed by powerful Robber Barons and tycoons during the Gilded Age. The referendum, Measure 8, was approved by the voters, thereby reinstating the legislation. ." WebThe Progressive Era also witnessed a wave of radicalism, with leaders who believed that America was beyond reform and that only a complete revolution of sorts would bring about the necessary changes. Colorado Bar Association, Analysis of Thirty-Two Measures, 66; The Eight-Hour Laws. Rocky Mountain News, 24 10 1912Google Scholar. The Guggenheim family operated the American Smelting and Refining Company (ASARCO) in Pueblo as well as several large mines in Colorado. 61. Our morbid, economic growth is dangerously lower than historical averages. Unfortunately, few accounts exist concerning the electioneering of these and other measures. Devastatingly and increasingly, children are not living in stable, two-parent households. The Progressive Era. 2. Philosophically, the Progressives had a problem: What to do about Americas reverence for freedom and liberty? WebThe History of Initiative & Referendum in Arizona began when it acquired statewide initiative, referendum, and recall rights at the time of statehood in 1912. See Gitelman, Howard, Legacy of the Ludlow Massacre: A Chapter in American Industrial Relations (Philadelphia, 1988)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Colorado State Archives, The Governor Elias M. Ammons Collection at the Colorado State Archives. . These affidavits were given to the Secretary of State. Lonsdale, The Movement for an Eight-Hour Law in Colorado, 274. Speer and Evans had another reason to be allies. d. Cold War, Issues surrounding women's voting rights were settled by- Bowler, Shaun An initiative is when citizens decide to put an issue on their ballot with or without the permission of their state legislature. Since our founding, America was about freedom, and academics knew in order to force progressivism they needed to redefine freedom. Instead of our Founders natural right to be free, the Progresses defined freedom as supplying resources money and trained, social workers to enlarge and fulfill human capacities. WebFour constitutional amendments were adopted during the Progressive era including: authorizing an income tax; providing for the direct election of senators; extending the vote to women; and prohibiting the manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages. c. were all muckrakers Irrespective of whether public policy in states permitting the initiative is more consistent with the median voter than in noninitiative states, individual legislators in initiative states seem to interpret initiative results from a rational, selfish perspective, which includes noting how their own constituents voted on ballot measures. Looking at the total votes cast in the election, even Measure 31, which had the most votes of the five legislatively referred measures, was voted upon by less than half of the people who voted on the prohibition initiative. If it does not, then the referendum does not pass. In actuality, women in Colorado gained the right to vote after male voters in November 1893 passed a constitutional amendment referendum placed on the ballot by the state legislature. See Colorado Bar Association, Analysis of Thirty-Two Measures, 66. Originally, our Constitution decreed that state legislatures selected their two United States Senators. 2003. What did the Nazis begin using gas chambers instead of mobile killing units and shooting squads after a while? If the information on the internet naming well-known Tory politicians from the Thatcher era linked to paedophile activity within the care home system in Wales, Northern Ireland, Jersey & parts of UK, for e.g. Encyclopedia.com. Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez (D-NY-14) 0% / 13.9%. WebThe Progressive Era was a period of movements across the country to make social, political and judicial changes in the society; changes that originated to resolve problems caused by the Industrial Revolution and urbanization of the different areas (North, South, West). Thus, freedom was converted from protecting individuals and their property to governments obligation to "create individuals.. thesis, University of Denver, 1964)Google Scholar. 25. Very few Americans understand that over a century ago, Progressives perverted our Constitution and governance system from a limited-government, which restricted governance powers to an unlimited government run by elites and their bureaucracies. The people like Patriotism, like the Union Jack and the Armed Forces. This followed after American intellectuals studied in Germany and became devotees to the theory that intelligent elites, using the power of government, will mold better people and a superior society. While the debate over the merits and drawbacks of citizen lawmaking remains as contentious as ever, critics and proponents alike usually concur that two extra-legislative toolsthe citizen initiative and the popular referendumwere most effectively used to counteract the legislative might of special interests during the Progressive Era. For instance, in 1914 the Denver Post opposed a plan to make newspapers a public utility. For the keen interest of voters regarding prohibition measures in other states during the Progressive Era, see Shippee, Lester, Washington's First Experiment in Direct Legislation, Political Science Quarterly 30 (1915), 235253CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Barnett, , The Operation of the Initiative, Referendum, and Recall in Oregon, 1915Google Scholar; Allswang, The Initiative and Referendum in California, 18981998; Beard, and Shultz, , Documents on the State-wide Initiative, Referendum and Recall, 1912Google Scholar. b. factory owners and bankers Along the Color Line For example, voters in counties that broadly supported the DLL's Measure 13 would be expected not to support the utility companies' sham initiative, Measure 4. Encyclopedia.com. 10Google Scholar. At the time, the Denver Post was being sued for libel, so it understandably kept its editorializing to a minimum. . 39. Therefore, the wealthy and productive owe society, which has claims on their property and activity. For an overview of many of the ballot measures adopted during the Progressive Era, see Schmidt, Citizen Lawmakers, 2526. Therefore, be sure to refer to those guidelines when editing your bibliography or works cited list. Roosevelt did exclaim that the legislators should BE PROGRESSIVE. Tolbert, Caroline J. Who is Jason crabb mother and where is she? See Garrett, Elizabeth, Perspective on Direct Democracy: Who Directs Direct Democracy? University of Chicago Law School Roundtable 4 (1997): 1736Google Scholar; Smith, Daniel A., Tax Crusaders and the Politics of Direct Democracy (New York, 1998)Google Scholar; idem, Reevaluating the Causes of Proposition 13, Social Science History 23:2 (Summer 1999): 173210; idem, Campaign Financing of Ballot Initiatives in the American States, in Larry Sabato, Bruce Larson, and Howard Ernst, eds., Dangerous Democracy? Extraordinary Session (Denver, 1910), 138139Google Scholar. 66. What was referendum in the progressive era? However, Woodrow Wilson was the first president to strongly support the Progressive creed and strongly asserted that the Constitution and the philosophy of our Founders were archaic. c. Roaring Twenties No official records on turnout are available for the 1912 election. All the people listed above b. exposed corrupt political machines d. were all yellow journalists, -Lincoln Steffans However, legislation authorizing a national referendum would probably be unconstitutional, and an amendment authorizing it would almost certainly fail to receive congressional approval. ", more control of the government by the people, Created in 1913, the Federal Reserve requires, banks to keep a % of every deposit as a reserve, The creation of the National Park Service and U.S. Forest Service illustrates, that the federal government supported the conservation of resources, The 1848 meeting at Seneca Falls, New York, The Progressive goal to implement women's suffrage was accomplished by-, The creation of initiative, referendum, and recall procedures during the Progressive Era resulted in-, the expansion of citizens' direct participation in the democratic process. To visit our donation disclosure please visit: https://www.freedomworks.org/donation-disclosure. 6. An Assessment of Direct Democracy Voters, in Sabato, Ernst, and Larson, eds., Dangerous Democracy? Although the DLL stayed active in 1913 and tried to get several progressive measures through the legislature, in 1914 Lindsey incorporated the Colorado Social Service League and the DLL floundered in his absence. 51. A Referendum on the Failure of the Progressive Era Part I: Progressives Pervert Our Constitution By: FW Staff 10/24/2016 Americans are furious with the overt the 1920s. 17th Amendment It allowed state legislatures to influence the election of U.S. senators. "referendum As the Colorado Bar observed, There will by this law be concentrated with the said commissioners full control and authority. Colorado Bar Association, Analysis of Thirty-Two Measures, 73. WebOne reform instituted by Progressives in many states was the referendum. b. the influence of labor unions on factory owners was reduced Bill to Abolish State Senate as Corporation Tool and Bar to Progress to be Initiated, Rocky Mountain News, 8 January 1913; House Democrats Plan to Head Petitions for Abolition of State Senate, Rocky Mountain News, 9 January 1913. Imperial accoutrements like old songs and statues should stay where they are. 72. adoption in all states of the initiative referendum and recall it also advocated woman suffrage workmen s 11. c. the assimilation of immigrants In fact, Coloradoans approved a constitutional amendment ballot initiative (Measure 9) in 1912 that permitted the recall of public officials. However, the alliance was publicly revealed in the Rocky Mountain News, owned by former U.S. https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/referendum-0, "referendum A teacher walks into the Classroom and says If only Yesterday was Tomorrow Today would have been a Saturday Which Day did the Teacher make this Statement? -Ellen Starr Schmidt, who does not mention his 1910 visit to Colorado, cites Roosevelt's 1912 Charter of Democracy speech as his first explicit advocacy of direct-democracy reforms. 30. 59. 16. See Matsusaka, John, Fiscal Effects of the Voter Initiative: Evidence from the Last 30 Years, Journal of Political Economy 103 (1995): 587623CrossRefGoogle Scholar; idem, Problems with a Methodology Used to Evaluate the Voter Initiative, Journal of Politics 63 (2001): 125056; Gerber, Elisabeth, Legislative Response to the Threat of Popular Initiatives, American Journal of Political Science 40 (1996): 99128CrossRefGoogle Scholar; but see Lascher, Edward, Hagen, Michael, and Rochlin, Steven, Gun Behind the Door?